The present invention is in the general field of poultry farming and relates particularly to the feeding of male poultry, particularly breeding cocks or roosters, as they are commonly named.
The demand for poultry, especially in fast foods and other foods has expanded considerably over the last decade. The poultry industry has grown from a home industry to a large scale manufacturing industry in which thousands of birds are produced daily at single farms or poultry farming installations. Some birds are produced for eating and some birds are produced for breeding or egg producing. One problem with such large scale production is that male birds or cocks cannot adequately accommodate all the hens or female birds during their mating activities. As with most animals, the cocks tend to quite before mating of all female birds has taken place, thus requiring the larger numbers of cocks to obtain sufficient mating.
In general, the economically beneficial productive life of broiler breeders is relatively short, about nine months for females and six months for males. Even a small increase in economic longevity provides a high dollar value to this large food producing industry. A one month extension of the lay cycle for females could save the industry over thirty million dollars annually. A one month extension for males could be worth an additional ten million dollars.
The poultry broiler industry in the United States of America produces approximately five (5) billion broilers. In order to produce such a large number of chicks, presently, about 6.1 billion eggs must be set in incubators, since 18 to 20 percent of the eggs set never hatch. One of the principal reasons for poor hatching percentages is inadequate fertility of male breeders. Even a five (5) percent improvement in the percentage of eggs hatched projects to a fifty million dollar annual benefit to the industry.
Larger numbers of cocks unnecessarily complicate the social order (pecking order) of the birds in the breeding house, and consequently costs are undesirably increased.
It is therfore an important object of the present invention to provide a means for increasing the drive or aggressiveness of male birds, cocks or roosters, thereby increasing poultry production and reducing costs.
A principal object of the invention is to improve the effectiveness of male birds in their mating activities.
Various types of zeolites, mainly naturally occurring zeolites or those found in nature, have been fed to a variety of animals, in various amounts, including chickens, for a variety of reasons and with various results, mostly unfavorable.
In addition to increasing eggshell strength in laying hens as described in our U.S. Pat. No. 4,556,564, improving feed utilization efficiency in poultry and larger egg size as described in our U.S. Pat. No. 4,610,882, decreasing the mortality rate of poultry as described in our U.S. Pat. No. 4, 610,883, and increasing the bone strength of animlas, including humans, as set forth in our copending U.S. application Ser. No. 801,596, as a result of our continuing studies it has been discovered that the regular feeding of small amounts of zeolite A to poultry produces the following positive results:
1. Calmer birds, reduced activity (layers) PA0 2. Extended lay cycle duration (layers and broiler breeders) PA0 3. Reduced carcass condemnation (broilers) PA0 4. Improved feathering (broilers) PA0 1. Increased male aggressiveness in breeding activity PA0 2. Improved lean/fat ratio in the edible carcass PA0 3. Improved resistance to heat stress, a multi-faceted benefit
The advantages of larger eggs, extended lay cycles and reducd condemnations are self-evident. Calmer birds produce more, less deformed eggs and lay with greater regularity. Stress in layers, as in most animals, is a highly negative factor. Improved feathering correlates with healthier and stronger birds.
More recently, our studies have discovered the following positive results:
It is well known that more active roosters impregnate more hens and result in more, i.e. greater numbers of fertile eggs. Male birds regularly fed zeolite A are more aggressive than birds regularly fed a similar feed without zeolite A.
Zeolites are crystalline, hydrated aluminosilicates of alkali and alkaline earth cations, having infinite, three-dimensional structures.
Zeolites consist basically of a three-dimensional framework of SiO.sub.4 and AlO.sub.4 tetrahedra. The tetrahedra are cross-linked by the sharing of oxygen atoms so that the ratio of oxygen atoms to the total of the aluminum and silicon atoms is equal to two or O/(Al+Si)=2. The electrovalence of each tetrahedra containing aluminum is balanced by the inclusion in the crystal of a cation, for example, a sodium ion. This balance may be expressed by the formula Al/Na=1. The spaces between the tetrahedra are occupied by water molecules prior to dehydration.
Zeolite A may be distinguished from other zeolites and silicates on the basis of their composition and X-ray powder diffraction patterns and certain physical characteristics. The X-ray patterns for these zeolites are described below. The composition and density are among the characteristics which have been found to be important in identifying these zeolites.
The basic formula for all crystalline sodium zeolites may be represented as follows: EQU Na.sub.2 O.Al.sub.2 O.sub.3.xSiO.sub.2.yH.sub.2 O
In general, a particular crystalline zeolite will have values for "x" and "y" that fall in a definite range. The value "x" for a particular zeolite will vary somewhat since the aluminum atoms and the silicon atoms occupy essentially equivalent positions in the lattice. Minor variations in the relative number of these atoms do not significantly alter the crystal structure or physical properties of the zeolite. For zeolite A, the "x" value normally falls within the range 1.85+0.5.
The value for "y" is not necessarily an invariant for all samples of zeolites. This is true because various exchangeable ions are of different size, and, since there is no major change in the crystal lattice dimensions upon ion exchange, the space available in the pores of the zeolite to accomodate water molecules varies.
The average value for "y" for zeolite A is 5.1. The formula for zeolite A may be written as follows: EQU 1.0+0.2 Na.sub.2 O.Al.sub.2 O.sub.3.1.85+0.5 SiO.sub.2.yH.sub.2 O
In the formula, "y" may be any value up to 6.
An ideal zeolite A has the following formula: EQU (NaAlSiO.sub.4).sub.12.27H.sub.2 O
Among the ways of identifying zeolites and distinguishing them from other zeolites and other crystalline substances, the X-ray powder diffraction pattern has been found to be a useful tool. In obtaining the X-ray powder diffraction patterns, standard techniques are employed. The radiation is the K.alpha. doublet of copper and a Geiger counter spectrometer or suitable radiation detector with a strip chart pen recorder is used. The peak heights, I, and the positions as a function of 2.theta. where .theta. is the Bragg angle, are read from a spectrometer chart or accumulated in computer memory. From these, the relative intensities, 100 I/I.sub.o, where I.sub.o is the intensity of the strongest line or peak and d the interplanar spacing in angstroms corresponding to the recorded lines are calculated.
X-ray powder diffraction data for a sodium zeolite A are given in Table I.
TABLE I ______________________________________ X-RAY DIFFRACTION PATTERN FOR ZEOLITE A h.sup.2 + k.sup.2 + l.sup.2 d (.ANG.) ##STR1## ______________________________________ 1 12.29 100 2 8.71 70 3 7.11 35 4 6.15 2 5 5.51 25 6 5.03 2 8 4.36 6 9 4.107 35 10 3.895 2 11 3.714 50 13 3.417 16 14 3.293 45 16 3.078 2 17 2.987 55 18 2.904 10 20 2.754 12 21 2.688 4 22 2.626 20 24 2.515 6 25 2.464 4 26 2.414 &gt;1 27 2.371 3 29 2.289 1 30 2.249 3 32 2.177 7 33 2.144 10 34 2.113 3 35 2.083 4 36 2.053 9 41 1.924 7 42 1.901 4 44 2.858 2 45 1.837 3 49 1.759 2 50 1.743 13 53 1.692 6 54 1.676 2 55 1.661 2 57 1.632 4 59 1.604 6 ______________________________________
The more significant d values for zeolite A are given in Table II.
TABLE II ______________________________________ MOST SIGNIFICANT d VALUES FOR ZEOLITE A d Value of Reflection in .ANG. ______________________________________ 12.2 .+-. 0.2 8.7 .+-. 0.2 7.10 .+-. 0.15 5.50 .+-. 0.10 4.10 .+-. 0.10 3.70 .+-. 0.07 3.40 .+-. 0.06 3.29 .+-. 0.05 2.98 .+-. 0.05 2.62 .+-. 0.05 ______________________________________
Occasionally, additional lines not belonging to the pattern for the zeolite appear in a pattern along with the X-ray lines characteristic of that zeolite. This is an indication that one or more additional crystalline materials are mixed with the zeolite in the sample being tested. Small changes in line positions may also occur under these conditions. Such changes in no way hinder the identification of the X-ray patterns as belonging to the zeolite.
The particular X-ray technique and/or apparatus employed, the humidity, the temperature, the orientation of the powder crystals and other variables, all of which are well known and understood to those skiled in the art of X-ray crystallography or diffraction can cause some variations in the intensities and positions of the lines. These changes, even in those few instancs where they become large, pose no problem to the skilled X-ray crystallographer in establishing identities. Thus, the X-ray data given herein to identify the lattice for a zeolite, are not to exclude those materials which, due to some variable mentioned or otherwise known to those skilled in the art, fail to show all of the lines, or show a few extra ones that are permissible in the cubic system of that zeolite, or show a slight shift in position of the lines, so as to give a slightly larger or smaller lattice parameter.
A simpler test described in "American Mineralogist," Vol. 28, page 545, 1943, permits a quick check of the silicon to aluminum ratio of the zeolite. According to the description of the test, zeolite minerals with a three-dimensional network that contains aluminum and silicon atoms in an atomic ratio fo Al/Si=2/3=0.67, or greater,produce a gel when treated with hydrochloric acid. Zeolites having smaller aluminum to silicon ratios disintegrate in the presence of hydrochloric acid and precipitate silica. These tests were developed with natural zeolites and may vary slightly when applied to synthetic types.
U.S. Pat. No. 2,882,243 describes a process for making zeolite A comprising preparing a sodium-aluminum silicate water mixture having an SiO.sub.2 :Al.sub.2 O.sub.3 mole ratio of from 0.5:1 to 1.5:1, and Na.sub.2 O/SiO.sub.2 mole ratio of from 0.8:1 to 3:1, and an H.sub.2 O/Na.sub.2 O mole ratio of from 35:1 to 200:1, maintaining the mixture at a temperature of from 20.degree. C. to 175.degree. C. until zeolite A is formed, and separating the zeolite A from the mother liquor.
Experiments have been in progress in Japan since 1965 on the use of natural zeolite minerals as dietary supplements for poultry, swine and cattle. Significant increases in body weight per unit of feed consumed and in the general health of the animals was reported (Minato, Hideo, Koatsugasnu 5:536, 1968). Reductions in malodor were also noted.
Using clinoptilolite and mordenite from northern Japan, Onagi, T. (Rept. Yamagata Stock Raising Inst. 7, 1966) found that Leghorn chickens required less food and water and gained as much weight in a two-week trial as birds receiving a control diet. No adverse effects on health or mortality were noted. The foregoing Japanese experiments were reported by F. A. Mumpton and P. H. Fishman in the Journal of Animal Science, Vol. 45, No. 5 (1977) pp. 1188-1203.
U.S. Pat. No. 3,836,676 issued to Chukei Komakine in 1974 discloses the use of zeolites as adsorbent moisture of ferrous sulfate crystals in an odorless chicken feed comprising such crystals and chicken droppings. The results were said to be no less than those in the case where chickens were raised with ordinary feed.
Canadian Patent 939,186 issued to White et al in 1974 discloses the use of zeolites having exchangeable cations as a feed component in the feeding of urea or biuret non-protein (NPR) compounds to ruminants, such as cattle, sheep and goats. Natural and synthetic as well as crystalline and non-crystalline zeolites are disclosed. Zeolites tested included natural zeolites, chabazite and clinoptilolite and synthetic zeolites X, Y, F, J, M, Z, and A. Zeolite F was by far the most outstanding and zeolite A was substantially ineffective.
An article by C. U. Chung et al from Nongsa Sihom Youngu Pogo 1978, 20 (Livestock) pp. 77-83 discusses the effects of cation exchange capacity and particle size of zeolites on the growth, feed efficiency and feed materials utilizability of broilers or broiling size chickens. Supplementing the feed of the broilers with naturally occurring zeolites, such as clinoptilolite, some increase in body weight gain was determined. Chung et al also reported that earlier results at the Livestock Experiment Station (1974, 1975, 1976--Suweon, Korea) showed that no significant difference was observed when 1.5, 3, and 4.5 percent zeolite was added to chicken layer diets.
A study by H. S. Nadaue of feeding White Leghorn Layers clinoptilolite, reported in 1981 Poultry Science 60:944-949, disclosed no significant differences in eggshell strength between hens receiving the zeolite in their diet and hens not receiving the zeolite in thier diet.
In a recent study at the University of Georgia, both broilers and layers were fed small amounts (about 2%) of clinoptilolite, a naturally occurring zeolite from Tilden, Tex. The eggshells from the hens receiving zeolite were slightly more flexible as measured by deformation, slightly less strong as measured by Instron breaking strength, and had a slightly lower specific gravity. The differences in eggshell quality were very small. This type of zeolite was ineffective in producing a stronger eggshell. An article written by Larry Vest and John Shutze entitled "The Influence of Feeding Zeolites to Poultry Under Field Conditions" summarizing the studies was presented at Zeo-Agricultrue '82.
It is an important object of the present invention to increase the aggressiveness of male poultry by feeding a feed to the male poultry which contains a small effective amount of zeolite A.
It is another object of the invention to provide an increase in fertile eggs by feeding the poultry a feed containing a small amount of zeolite A sufficient to extend the fertile egg producing life of the poultry.
Another object of the invention is to provide an improved process for increasing the effective egg producing period of laying poultry wherein an effective amount of zeolite A is added to the diet of the laying poultry.
Still another object of the invention is to cost effectively decrease the mortality rate of laying poultry.
Other objects and advantages of the invention will be more fully understood from a reading of the description and claims hereinafter.